Thus, our agents’ superior performance might be a result of their faster visual processing and motor control. Here’s an example of a reaction time test you can try yourself. Humans are comparatively slow to process and act on sensory input, due to our slower biological signalling.
How did our agents perform as well as they did? First, we noticed that the agents had very fast reaction times and were very accurate taggers, which might explain their performance (tagging is a tactical action that sends opponents back to their starting point). The paper provides further analysis covering the agents’ use of memory and visual attention.
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In fact, we can find particular neurons that code directly for some of the most important game states, such as a neuron that activates when the agent’s flag is taken, or a neuron that activates when an agent’s teammate is holding a flag. The agents are never told anything about the rules of the game, yet learn about fundamental game concepts and effectively develop an intuition for CTF. The trained agents even exhibit some artificial neurons which code directly for particular situations. We see that these neural activation patterns are organised, and form clusters of colour, indicating that agents are representing meaningful aspects of gameplay in a stereotyped, organised fashion. They’re then coloured according to the game situation at that time - same colour, same situation. In the plot above, neural activation patterns at a given time are plotted according to how similar they are to one another: the closer two points are in space, the more similar their activation patterns. Agents operate at two timescales, fast and slow, which improves their ability to use memory and generate consistent action sequences.Ī look into how our agents represent the game world.A two-tier optimisation process optimises agents’ internal rewards directly for winning, and uses reinforcement learning on the internal rewards to learn the agents’ policies. Each agent in the population learns its own internal reward signal, which allows agents to generate their own internal goals, such as capturing a flag.Rather than training a single agent, we train a population of agents, which learn by playing with each other, providing a diversity of teammates and opponents.This is a challenging learning problem, and its solution is based on three general ideas for reinforcement learning:
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Our agents must learn from scratch how to see, act, cooperate, and compete in unseen environments, all from a single reinforcement signal per match: whether their team won or not. Additionally, to level the playing field, our learning agents experience the world of CTF in a similar way to humans: they observe a stream of pixel images and issue actions through an emulated game controller. As a consequence, our agents are forced to acquire general strategies rather than memorising the map layout. To make things even more interesting, we consider a variant of CTF in which the map layout changes from match to match. This complexity makes first-person multiplayer games a fruitful and active area of research within the AI community.įrom a multi-agent perspective, CTF requires players to both successfully cooperate with their teammates as well as compete with the opposing team, while remaining robust to any playing style they might encounter. The challenge for our agents is to learn directly from raw pixels to produce actions. These games represent the most popular genre of video game, and have captured the imagination of millions of gamers because of their immersive game play, as well as the challenges they pose in terms of strategy, tactics, hand-eye coordination, and team play. To investigate this problem, we look at 3D first-person multiplayer video games. This is an immensely difficult problem - because with co-adapting agents the world is constantly changing.
This is a setting we call multi-agent learning: many individual agents must act independently, yet learn to interact and cooperate with other agents.
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Agents playing two other Quake III Arena multiplayer game modes on full-scale tournament maps: Harvester on the Future Crossings map (left) and One Flag Capture the Flag on the Ironwood map (right), with all the pickups and gadgets of the full game.īillions of people inhabit the planet, each with their own individual goals and actions, but still capable of coming together through teams, organisations and societies in impressive displays of collective intelligence.
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